












































































               Writing Papers with NROFF using -me


                         Eric P. Allman*

                         Project INGRES
                 Electronics Research Laboratory
               University of California, Berkeley
                   Berkeley, California  94720






     This  document  describes  the  text  processing  facilities
available  on  the  UNIX  operating  system via NROFF and the -me
macro package.  It is assumed that the reader already  is  gener-
ally  familiar  with  the UNIX operating system and a text editor
such as ex.  This is intended to be a casual introduction, and as
such not all material is covered.  In particular, many variations
and  additional  features  of  the  -me  macro  package  are  not
explained.   For  a complete discussion of this and other issues,
see The -me Reference Manual and The NROFF/TROFF  Reference  Man-
ual.

     NROFF,  a  computer  program that runs on the UNIX operating
system, reads an input file prepared by the user  and  outputs  a
formatted  paper  suitable for publication or framing.  The input
consists of text, or words to be  printed,  and  requests,  which
give  instructions to the NROFF program telling how to format the
printed copy.

     Section 1 describes the basics of text processing.   Section
2  describes  the basic requests.  Section 3 introduces displays.
Annotations, such as footnotes, are handled in  section  4.   The
more  complex  requests  which are not discussed in section 2 are
covered in section 5.  Finally, section 6  discusses  things  you
will need to know if you want to typeset documents.  If you are a
novice, you probably won't want to read beyond  section  4  until
you have tried some of the basic features out.


____________________
   *Author's  current  address:  Computer Science Division, EECS,
University of California, Berkeley, California 94720.
   UNIX is a trademark of AT&T Bell Laboratories




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     When  you have your raw text ready, call the NROFF formatter
by typing as a request to the UNIX shell:

    nroff -me -Ttype files

where type describes the type of terminal you are outputting  to.
Common  values  are dtc for a DTC 300s (daisy-wheel type) printer
and lpr for the line printer.  If the -T flag is omitted, a "low-
est  common  denominator"  terminal  is assumed; this is good for
previewing output on most terminals.  A complete  description  of
options to the NROFF command can be found in The NROFF/TROFF Ref-
erence Manual.

     The word argument is used in this manual to mean a  word  or
number which appears on the same line as a request which modifies
the meaning of that request.  For example, the request

    .sp

spaces one line, but

    .sp 4

spaces four lines.  The number  4  is  an  argument  to  the  .sp
request which says to space four lines instead of one.  Arguments
are separated from the request and from each other by spaces.

1.  Basics of Text Processing

        The primary function of NROFF is to  collect  words  from
   input  lines,  fill output lines with those words, justify the
   right hand margin by inserting extra spaces in the  line,  and
   output the result.  For example, the input:

       Now is the time
       for all good men
       to come to the aid
       of their party.
       Four score and seven
       years ago,...

   will  be read, packed onto output lines, and justified to pro-
   duce:

       Now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of
       their party.  Four score and seven years ago,...

   Sometimes  you may want to start a new output line even though
   the line you are on is not yet full; for example, at  the  end
   of  a  paragraph.   To  do  this  you can cause a break, which
   starts a new output line.  Some requests cause a  break  auto-
   matically,  as  do blank input lines and input lines beginning
   with a space.










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        Not all input lines are text to be  formatted.   Some  of
   the  input lines are requests which describe how to format the
   text.  Requests always have a period or an apostrophe ("'") as
   the first character of the input line.

        The text formatter also does more complex things, such as
   automatically  numbering  pages,  skipping  over  page  folds,
   putting footnotes in the correct place, and so forth.

        I  can offer you a few hints for preparing text for input
   to NROFF.  First, keep the input  lines  short.   Short  input
   lines  are  easier  to  edit,  and  NROFF will pack words onto
   longer lines for you anyhow.  In  keeping  with  this,  it  is
   helpful  to  begin  a  new  line after every period, comma, or
   phrase, since common corrections are to  add  or  delete  sen-
   tences  or  phrases.   Second, do not put spaces at the end of
   lines, since this can sometimes confuse the  NROFF  processor.
   Third,  do  not  hyphenate  words  at the end of lines (except
   words that should have hyphens in them,  such  as  "mother-in-
   law");  NROFF  is  smart  enough to hyphenate words for you as
   needed, but is not smart enough to take hyphens out and join a
   word  back  together.   Also,  words  such  as "mother-in-law"
   should not be broken over a line, since then you  will  get  a
   space where not wanted, such as "mother- in-law".

2.  Basic Requests

   2.1.  Paragraphs

           Paragraphs  are  begun  by using the .pp request.  For
      example, the input:

          .pp
          Now is the time for all good men
          to come to the aid of their party.
          Four score and seven years ago,...

      produces a blank line followed by an indented  first  line.
      The result is:

               Now  is  the  time for all good men to come to
          the aid of their party.  Four score and seven years
          ago,...


           Notice  that  the sentences of the paragraphs must not
      begin with a space, since blank lines and  lines  beginning
      with spaces cause a break.  For example, if I had typed:

          .pp
          Now is the time for all good men
                to come to the aid of their party.
          Four score and seven years ago,...










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      The output would be:

               Now is the time for all good men
                to  come  to  the  aid  of their party.  Four
          score and seven years ago,...

      A new line begins after the word "men" because  the  second
      line began with a space character.

           There are many fancier types of paragraphs, which will
      be described later.

   2.2.  Headers and Footers

           Arbitrary headers and footers can be put  at  the  top
      and  bottom  of  every  page.   Two  requests  of  the form
      .he title and .fo title define the titles  to  put  at  the
      head  and the foot of every page, respectively.  The titles
      are called three-part titles, that is, there is a left-jus-
      tified  part,  a centered part, and a right-justified part.
      To separate these three parts the first character of  title
      (whatever it may be) is used as a delimiter.  Any character
      may be used, but backslash and double quote marks should be
      avoided.   The percent sign is replaced by the current page
      number whenever found  in  the  title.   For  example,  the
      input:

          .he ''%''
          .fo 'Jane Jones''My Book'

      results  in  the  page  number  centered at the top of each
      page, "Jane Jones" in the lower left corner, and "My  Book"
      in the lower right corner.

   2.3.  Double Spacing

           NROFF  will  double space output text automatically if

      you use the request .ls 2, as is done in this section.  You

      can revert to single spaced mode by typing .ls 1.

   2.4.  Page Layout

           A  number  of requests allow you to change the way the
      printed copy looks, sometimes called the layout of the out-
      put  page.   Most  of  these requests adjust the placing of
      "white space" (blank lines or spaces).  In  these  explana-
      tions, characters in italics should be replaced with values
      you wish to use; bold characters represent characters which
      should actually be typed.












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           The .bp request starts a new page.

           The  request  .sp N  leaves N lines of blank space.  N
      can be omitted (meaning skip a single line) or  can  be  of
      the  form Ni (for N inches) or Nc (for N centimeters).  For
      example, the input:

          .sp 1.5i
          My thoughts on the subject
          .sp

      leaves one and a half inches of space, followed by the line
      "My  thoughts  on  the subject", followed by a single blank
      line.

           The .in +N request changes the amount of  white  space
      on  the  left of the page (the indent).  The argument N can
      be of the form +N (meaning leave N spaces more than you are
      already  leaving), -N (meaning leave less than you do now),
      or just N (meaning leave exactly N spaces).  N  can  be  of
      the form Ni or Nc also.  For example, the input:

          initial text
          .in 5
          some text
          .in +1i
          more text
          .in -2c
          final text

      produces  "some text" indented exactly five spaces from the
      left margin, "more text" indented five spaces plus one inch
      from the left margin (fifteen spaces on a pica typewriter),
      and "final text" indented five spaces plus one  inch  minus
      two centimeters from the margin.  That is, the output is:

          initial text
               some text
                         more text
                 final text


           The  .ti +N  (temporary  indent)  request is used like
      .in +N when the indent should apply to one line only, after
      which  it  should revert to the previous indent.  For exam-
      ple, the input:

















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          .in 1i
          .ti 0
          Ware, James R.  The Best of Confucius,
          Halcyon House, 1950.
          An excellent book containing translations of
          most of Confucius' most delightful sayings.
          A definite must for anyone interested in the early foundations
          of Chinese philosophy.

      produces:
      Ware, James R.  The Best of Confucius, Halcyon House, 1950.
                An excellent book containing translations of most
                of Confucius' most delightful sayings.   A  defi-
                nite  must  for  anyone  interested  in the early
                foundations of Chinese philosophy.

           Text lines can be centered by using the  .ce  request.
      The  line  after  the .ce is centered (horizontally) on the
      page.  To center more than one line, use .ce N (where N  is
      the  number  of  lines to center), followed by the N lines.
      If you want to center many lines but don't  want  to  count
      them, type:

          .ce 1000
          lines to center
          .ce 0

      The .ce 0 request tells NROFF to center zero more lines, in
      other words, stop centering.

           All of these requests cause a  break;  that  is,  they
      always  start  a new line.  If you want to start a new line
      without performing any other action, use .br.

   2.5.  Underlining

           Text can be underlined using the .ul request.  The .ul
      request  causes  the  next input line to be underlined when
      output.  You can underline  multiple  lines  by  stating  a
      count  of input lines to underline, followed by those lines
      (as with the .ce request).  For example, the input:

          .ul 2
          Notice that these two input lines
          are underlined.

      will underline those eight words in NROFF.  (In TROFF  they
      will be set in italics.)

3.  Displays

        Displays are sections of text to be set off from the body
   of the paper.  Major quotes, tables, and figures are types  of










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   displays,  as are all the examples used in this document.  All
   displays except centered blocks are output single spaced.

   3.1.  Major Quotes

           Major quotes are quotes which are several lines  long,
      and  hence  are  set  in  from the rest of the text without
      quote marks around them.  These can be generated using  the
      commands  .(q  and .)q to surround the quote.  For example,
      the input:

          As Weizenbaum points out:
          .(q
          It is said that to explain is to explain away.
          This maxim is nowhere so well fulfilled
          as in the areas of computer programming,...
          .)q

      generates as output:

      As Weizenbaum points out:

          It is said that to  explain  is  to  explain  away.
          This  maxim  is nowhere so well fulfilled as in the
          areas of computer programming,...


   3.2.  Lists

           A list is an indented, single  spaced,  unfilled  dis-
      play.  Lists should be used when the material to be printed
      should not be filled and justified like normal  text,  such
      as  columns  of figures or the examples used in this paper.
      Lists are surrounded by the  requests  .(l  and  .)l.   For
      example, type:

          Alternatives to avoid deadlock are:
          .(l
          Lock in a specified order
          Detect deadlock and back out one process
          Lock all resources needed before proceeding
          .)l

      will produce:
      Alternatives to avoid deadlock are:

          Lock in a specified order
          Detect deadlock and back out one process
          Lock all resources needed before proceeding














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   3.3.  Keeps

           A  keep is a display of lines which are kept on a sin-
      gle page if possible.  An example of where you would use  a
      keep  might  be a diagram.  Keeps differ from lists in that
      lists may be broken over a page boundary whereas keeps will
      not.

           Blocks  are  the  basic kind of keep.  They begin with
      the request .(b and end with the request .)b.  If there  is
      not room on the current page for everything in the block, a
      new page is begun.  This has the unpleasant effect of leav-
      ing  blank  space  at the bottom of the page.  When this is
      not appropriate, you can use the alternative, called float-
      ing keeps.

           Floating keeps move relative to the text.  Hence, they
      are good for things which will be referred to by name, such
      as "See figure 3".  A floating keep will appear at the bot-
      tom of the current page if it will fit; otherwise, it  will
      appear  at  the top of the next page.  Floating keeps begin
      with the line .(z and end with the line .)z.  For an  exam-
      ple  of  a floating keep, see figure 1.  The .hl request is
      used to draw a horizontal line so that  the  figure  stands
      out from the text.

   3.4.  Fancier Displays

           Keeps and lists are normally collected in nofill mode,
      so that they are good for tables and such.  If you  want  a
      display  in  fill  mode  (for text), type .(l F (Throughout
      this section, comments applied to .(l also apply to .(b and
      .(z).  This kind of display will be indented from both mar-
      gins.  For example, the input:


          _____________________________________________

          .(z
          .hl
          Text of keep to be floated.
          .sp
          .ce
          Figure 1.  Example of a Floating Keep.
          .hl
          .)z

             Figure 1.  Example of a Floating Keep.
          _____________________________________________














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          .(l F
          And now boys and girls,
          a newer, bigger, better toy than ever before!
          Be the first on your block to have your own computer!
          Yes kids, you too can have one of these modern
          data processing devices.
          You too can produce beautifully formatted papers
          without even batting an eye!
          .)l

      will be output as:

          And now boys and girls, a newer, bigger, better toy
          than  ever  before!   Be the first on your block to
          have your own computer!  Yes kids, you too can have
          one  of  these modern data processing devices.  You
          too can produce beautifully formatted papers  with-
          out even batting an eye!


           Lists  and blocks are also normally indented (floating
      keeps are normally left justified).  To get  a  left-justi-
      fied  list,  type  .(l L.  To get a list centered line-for-
      line, type .(l C.  For example, to get a filled, left  jus-
      tified list, enter:

          .(l L F
          text of block
          .)l

      The input:

          .(l
          first line of unfilled display
          more lines
          .)l

      produces the indented text:

          first line of unfilled display
          more lines

      Typing  the  character L after the .(l request produces the
      left justified result:

      first line of unfilled display
      more lines

      Using C instead of L produces the  line-at-a-time  centered
      output:

                    first line of unfilled display
                              more lines










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           Sometimes  it  may  be that you want to center several
      lines as a group, rather than centering them one line at  a
      time.  To do this use centered blocks, which are surrounded
      by the requests .(c and .)c.  All the lines are centered as
      a unit, such that the longest line is centered and the rest
      are lined up around that line.  Notice that  lines  do  not
      move  relative to each other using centered blocks, whereas
      they do using the C argument to keeps.

           Centered blocks are not keeps, and may be used in con-
      junction  with  keeps.   For  example, to center a group of
      lines as a unit and keep them on one page, use:

          .(b L
          .(c
          first line of unfilled display
          more lines
          .)c
          .)b

      to produce:

                 first line of unfilled display
                 more lines

      If the block requests (.(b and .)b) had  been  omitted  the
      result would have been the same, but with no guarantee that
      the lines of the centered block would have all been on  one
      page.   Note  the use of the L argument to .(b; this causes
      the centered block to center within the entire line  rather
      than  within  the  line minus the indent.  Also, the center
      requests must be nested inside the keep requests.

4.  Annotations

        There are a number of requests to  save  text  for  later
   printing.   Footnotes are printed at the bottom of the current
   page.  Delayed text is intended to be a variant form of  foot-
   note;  the  text  is  printed only when explicitly called for,
   such as at the end of each chapter.  Indexes  are  a  type  of
   delayed  text  having a tag (usually the page number) attached
   to each entry after a row of dots.   Indexes  are  also  saved
   until called for explicitly.

   4.1.  Footnotes

           Footnotes  begin with the request .(f and end with the
      request .)f.  The current  footnote  number  is  maintained
      automatically,  and can be used by typing \**, to produce a














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      footnote number1.  The number is automatically  incremented
      after every footnote.  For example, the input:

          .(q
          A man who is not upright
          and at the same time is presumptuous;
          one who is not diligent and at the same time is ignorant;
          one who is untruthful and at the same time is incompetent;
          such men I do not count among acquaintances.\**
          .(f
          \**James R. Ware,
          .ul
          The Best of Confucius,
          Halcyon House, 1950.
          Page 77.
          .)f
          .)q

      generates the result:

          A  man  who  is not upright and at the same time is
          presumptuous; one who is not diligent  and  at  the
          same time is ignorant; one who is untruthful and at
          the same time is incompetent; such  men  I  do  not
          count among acquaintances.2

      It is important that the footnote appears inside the quote,
      so  that  you  can be sure that the footnote will appear on
      the same page as the quote.

   4.2.  Delayed Text

           Delayed text is very similar to a footnote except that
      it  is  printed  when called for explicitly.  This allows a
      list of references to appear (for example) at  the  end  of
      each  chapter,  as  is  the convention in some disciplines.
      Use \*# on delayed text instead of \** as on footnotes.

           If you are using delayed text as your standard  refer-
      ence  mechanism,  you  can still use footnotes, except that
      you may want to reference  them  with  special  characters*
      rather than numbers.

   4.3.  Indexes

           An  "index"  (actually  more like a table of contents,
      since the entries are not sorted alphabetically)  resembles
____________________
   1Like this.
   2James  R.  Ware,  The Best of Confucius, Halcyon House, 1950.
Page 77.
   *Such as an asterisk.











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      delayed  text,  in that it is saved until called for.  How-
      ever, each entry has the page number (or  some  other  tag)
      appended to the last line of the index entry after a row of
      dots.

           Index entries begin with the request .(x and end  with
      .)x.   The  .)x  request  may have a argument, which is the
      value to print as the "page number".  It  defaults  to  the
      current page number.  If the page number given is an under-
      score ("_") no page number or line of dots  is  printed  at
      all.   To  get the line of dots without a page number, type
      .)x "", which specifies an explicitly null page number.

           The .xp request prints the index.

           For example, the input:

          .(x
          Sealing wax
          .)x
          .(x
          Cabbages and kings
          .)x _
          .(x
          Why the sea is boiling hot
          .)x 2.5a
          .(x
          Whether pigs have wings
          .)x ""
          .(x
          This is a terribly long index entry, such as might be used
          for a list of illustrations, tables, or figures; I expect it to
          take at least two lines.
          .)x
          .xp

      generates:
      Sealing wax ..........................................   12
      Cabbages and kings
      Why the sea is boiling hot ........................... 2.5a
      Whether pigs have wings ..............................
      This is a terribly long index entry, such as  might
           be  used  for a list of illustrations, tables,
           or figures; I expect it to take at  least  two
           lines.  .........................................   12

           The  .(x request may have a single character argument,
      specifying the "name" of the index; the normal index is  x.
      Thus,  several  "indices"  may be maintained simultaneously
      (such as a list of tables, table of contents, etc.).

           Notice that the index must be printed at  the  end  of
      the  paper,  rather  than  at  the  beginning where it will










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      probably appear (as a table of  contents);  the  pages  may
      have to be physically rearranged after printing.

5.  Fancier Features

        A   large  number  of  fancier  requests  exist,  notably
   requests to provide other sorts of paragraphs,  numbered  sec-
   tions  of  the form 1.2.3 (such as used in this document), and
   multicolumn output.

   5.1.  More Paragraphs

           Paragraphs generally start with a blank line and  with
      the first line indented.  It is possible to get left-justi-
      fied block-style paragraphs by using .lp instead of .pp, as
      demonstrated by the next paragraph.

      Sometimes  you  want  to  use paragraphs that have the body
      indented,  and  the  first  line  exdented   (opposite   of
      indented)  with  a  label.   This  can be done with the .ip
      request.  A word specified on  the  same  line  as  .ip  is
      printed  in  the margin, and the body is lined up at a pre-
      specified position (normally five  spaces).   For  example,
      the input:

          .ip one
          This is the first paragraph.
          Notice how the first line
          of the resulting paragraph lines up
          with the other lines in the paragraph.
          .ip two
          And here we are at the second paragraph already.
          You may notice that the argument to .ip
          appears
          in the margin.
          .lp
          We can continue text...

      produces as output:

      one  This  is  the  first  paragraph.  Notice how the first
           line of the resulting  paragraph  lines  up  with  the
           other lines in the paragraph.

      two  And  here we are at the second paragraph already.  You
           may notice that the argument to  .ip  appears  in  the
           margin.

      We  can continue text without starting a new indented para-
      graph by using the .lp request.

           If you have spaces in the label of a .ip request,  you
      must  use an "unpaddable space" instead of a regular space.










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      This is typed as a backslash character ("\") followed by  a
      space.  For example, to print the label "Part 1", enter:

          .ip "Part\ 1"


           If  a  label  of  an  indented paragraph (that is, the
      argument to .ip) is longer than the space allocated for the
      label,  .ip  will  begin  a  new line after the label.  For
      example, the input:

          .ip longlabel
          This paragraph had a long label.
          The first character of text on the first line
          will not line up with the text on second and subsequent lines,
          although they will line up with each other.

      will produce:

      longlabel
           This paragraph had a long label.  The first  character
           of  text  on  the first line will not line up with the
           text on second and  subsequent  lines,  although  they
           will line up with each other.

           It  is  possible  to  change  the size of the label by
      using a second argument which is the  size  of  the  label.
      For  example,  the above example could be done correctly by
      saying:

          .ip longlabel 10

      which will make the paragraph indent  10  spaces  for  this
      paragraph  only.  If you have many paragraphs to indent all
      the same amount, use the number register ii.  For  example,
      to leave one inch of space for the label, type:

          .nr ii 1i

      somewhere  before the first call to .ip.  Refer to the ref-
      erence manual for more information.

           If .ip is used with no argument at all no hanging  tag
      will be printed.  For example, the input:

          .ip [a]
          This is the first paragraph of the example.
          We have seen this sort of example before.
          .ip
          This paragraph is lined up with the previous paragraph,
          but it has no tag in the margin.

      produces as output:










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      [a]  This  is  the first paragraph of the example.  We have
           seen this sort of example before.

           This paragraph is lined up  with  the  previous  para-
           graph, but it has no tag in the margin.

           A special case of .ip is .np, which automatically num-
      bers paragraphs sequentially  from  1.   The  numbering  is
      reset  at the next .pp, .lp, or .sh (to be described in the
      next section) request.  For example, the input:

          .np
          This is the first point.
          .np
          This is the second point.
          Points are just regular paragraphs
          which are given sequence numbers automatically
          by the .np request.
          .pp
          This paragraph will reset numbering by .np.
          .np
          For example,
          we have reverted to numbering from one now.

      generates:

       (1)   This is the first point.

       (2)   This is the second point.  Points are  just  regular
             paragraphs which are given sequence numbers automat-
             ically by the .np request.

           This paragraph will reset numbering by .np.

       (1)   For example, we have reverted to numbering from  one
             now.

           The  .bu  request  gives  lists  of this sort that are
      identified with bullets rather  than  numbers.   The  para-
      graphs are also crunched together.  For example, the input:

          .bu
          One egg yolk
          .bu
          One tablespoon cream or top milk
          .bu
          Salt, cayenne, and lemon juice to taste
          .bu
          A generous two tablespoonfuls of butter














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      produces3:

       o One egg yolk
       o One tablespoon cream or top milk
       o Salt, cayenne, and lemon juice to taste
       o A generous two tablespoonfuls of butter

   5.2.  Section Headings

           Section  numbers  (such as the ones used in this docu-
      ment) can be automatically generated using the .sh request.
      You  must  tell  .sh  the depth of the section number and a
      section title.  The depth specifies how many numbers are to
      appear (separated by decimal points) in the section number.
      For example, the section number 4.2.5 has a depth of three.

           Section  numbers are incremented in a fairly intuitive
      fashion.  If you add a number (increase the depth), the new
      number  starts out at one.  If you subtract section numbers
      (or keep the same number) the final number is  incremented.
      For example, the input:

          .sh 1 "The Preprocessor"
          .sh 2 "Basic Concepts"
          .sh 2 "Control Inputs"
          .sh 3
          .sh 3
          .sh 1 "Code Generation"
          .sh 3

      produces as output the result:

          1.  The Preprocessor
          1.1.  Basic Concepts
          1.2.  Control Inputs
          1.2.1.
          1.2.2.
          2.  Code Generation
          2.1.1.


           You can specify the section number to begin by placing
      the section number after the section  title,  using  spaces
      instead of dots.  For example, the request:

____________________
   3By the way, if you put the first three  ingredients  in  a  a
heavy,  deep  pan  and  whisk the ingredients madly over a medium
flame (never taking your hand off the handle of  the  pot)  until
the  mixture reaches the consistency of custard (just a minute or
two), then mix in the butter off-heat, you will have a  wonderful
Hollandaise sauce.











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          .sh 3 "Another section" 7 3 4

      will  begin  the section numbered 7.3.4; all subsequent .sh
      requests will number relative to this number.

           There are more complex features which will cause  each
      section  to  be indented proportionally to the depth of the
      section.  For example, if you enter:

          .nr si N

      each section will be indented by an amount N.  N must  have
      a  scaling factor attached, that is, it must be of the form
      Nx, where x is a character telling  what  units  N  is  in.
      Common  values  for  x are i for inches, c for centimeters,
      and n for ens (the width of a single character).  For exam-
      ple, to indent each section one-half inch, type:

          .nr si 0.5i

      After  this, sections will be indented by one-half inch per
      level of depth in the section number.   For  example,  this
      document was produced using the request

          .nr si 3n

      at  the beginning of the input file, giving three spaces of
      indent per section depth.

           Section headers without automatically  generated  num-
      bers can be done using:

          .uh "Title"

      which  will do a section heading, but will put no number on
      the section.

   5.3.  Parts of the Basic Paper

           There are some requests which  assist  in  setting  up
      papers.   The  .tp  request  initializes  for a title page.
      There are no headers or footers on a title page, and unlike
      other pages you can space down and leave blank space at the
      top.  For example, a typical title page might appear as:



















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          .tp
          .sp 2i
          .(l C
          THE GROWTH OF TOENAILS
          IN UPPER PRIMATES
          .sp
          by
          .sp
          Frank N. Furter
          .)l
          .bp


           The request .th sets up the environment of  the  NROFF
      processor  to  do  a thesis, using the rules established at
      Berkeley.  It defines the correct headers  and  footers  (a
      page  number in the upper right hand corner only), sets the
      margins correctly, and double spaces.

           The .+c T request can be used to start chapters.  Each
      chapter  is  automatically numbered from one, and a heading
      is printed at the top of each chapter with the chapter num-
      ber  and the chapter name T.  For example, to begin a chap-
      ter called "Conclusions", use the request:

          .+c "CONCLUSIONS"

      which will produce, on a new page, the lines

                               CHAPTER 5
                              CONCLUSIONS

      with appropriate spacing for a thesis.  Also, the header is
      moved  to the foot of the page on the first page of a chap-
      ter.  Although the .+c request was  not  designed  to  work
      only  with  the  .th  request,  it  is tuned for the format
      acceptable for a PhD thesis at Berkeley.

           If the title parameter  T  is  omitted  from  the  .+c
      request, the result is a chapter with no heading.  This can
      also be used at the beginning of a paper; for example,  .+c
      was used to generate page one of this document.

           Although papers traditionally have the abstract, table
      of contents, and so forth at the front of the paper, it  is
      more  convenient  to  format and print them last when using
      NROFF.  This is so that index entries can be collected  and
      then  printed  for the table of contents (or whatever).  At
      the end of the paper, issue the .++ P request, which begins
      the  preliminary  part  of  the  paper.  After issuing this
      request, the .+c request will begin a  preliminary  section
      of  the  paper.   Most notably, this prints the page number
      restarted from one in lower case Roman numbers.  .+c may be










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      used repeatedly to begin different parts of the front mate-
      rial for example, the  abstract,  the  table  of  contents,
      acknowledgments,  list  of illustrations, etc.  The request
      .++ B may also be used to begin the  bibliographic  section
      at  the  end  of  the  paper.  For example, the paper might
      appear as outlined in figure 2.  (In this figure,  comments
      begin with the sequence \".)

   5.4.  Equations and Tables

           Two  special  UNIX  programs  exist  to format special
      types of material.  Eqn and neqn set equations for the pho-
      totypesetter and NROFF respectively.  Tbl arranges to print
      extremely pretty tables in a variety of formats.  This doc-
      ument will only describe the embellishments to the standard
      features; consult the reference manuals for  those  proces-
      sors for a description of their use.

           The  eqn  and neqn programs are described fully in the
      document Typesetting Mathematics - User's Guide by Brian W.
      Kernighan  and  Lorinda L. Cherry.  Equations are centered,
      and are kept on one page.  They are introduced by  the  .EQ
      request and terminated by the .EN request.

           The  .EQ  request  may  take  an equation number as an
      optional argument, which is printed vertically centered  on
      the  right  hand  side  of  the  equation.  If the equation
      becomes too long it should be split between two lines.   To
      do this, type:

          .EQ (eq 34)
          text of equation 34
          .EN C
          .EQ
          continuation of equation 34
          .EN

      The  C  on the .EN request specifies that the equation will
      be continued.

           The  tbl  program  produces  tables.   It   is   fully
      described (including numerous examples) in the document Tbl
      - A Program to Format Tables by M. E. Lesk.   Tables  begin
      with  the .TS request and end with the .TE request.  Tables
      are normally kept on a single page.  If you  have  a  table
      which  is too big to fit on a single page, so that you know
      it will extend to several pages, begin the table  with  the
      request .TS H and put the request .TH after the part of the
      table which you want duplicated at the top  of  every  page
      that the table is printed on.  For example, a table defini-
      tion for a long table might look like:












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_________________________________________________________________

.th                           \" set for thesis mode
.fo ''DRAFT''                 \" define footer for each page
.tp                           \" begin title page
.(l C                         \" center a large block
THE GROWTH OF TOENAILS
IN UPPER PRIMATES
.sp
by
.sp
Frank Furter
.)l                           \" end centered part
.+c INTRODUCTION              \" begin chapter named "INTRODUCTION"
.(x t                         \" make an entry into index `t'
Introduction
.)x                           \" end of index entry
text of chapter one
.+c "NEXT CHAPTER"            \" begin another chapter
.(x t                         \" enter into index `t' again
Next Chapter
.)x
text of chapter two
.+c CONCLUSIONS
.(x t
Conclusions
.)x
text of chapter three
.++ B                         \" begin bibliographic information
.+c BIBLIOGRAPHY              \" begin another `chapter'
.(x t
Bibliography
.)x
text of bibliography
.++ P                         \" begin preliminary material
.+c "TABLE OF CONTENTS"
.xp t                         \" print index `t' collected above
.+c PREFACE                   \" begin another preliminary section
text of preface


              Figure 2.  Outline of a Sample Paper
_________________________________________________________________


          .TS H
          c s s
          n n n.
          THE TABLE TITLE
          .TH
          text of the table
          .TE










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   5.5.  Two Column Output

           You can get two column output automatically  by  using
      the  request  .2c.   This  causes everything after it to be
      output in two-column form.  The request .bc  will  start  a
      new  column;  it  differs  from .bp in that .bp may leave a
      totally blank column when it starts a new page.  To  revert
      to single column output, use .1c.

   5.6.  Defining Macros

           A macro is a collection of requests and text which may
      be used by stating a simple request.  Macros begin with the
      line  .de xx  (where  xx  is  the  name  of the macro to be
      defined) and end with the  line  consisting  of  two  dots.
      After  defining the macro, stating the line .xx is the same
      as stating all the other lines.  For example, to  define  a
      macro  that  spaces 3 lines and then centers the next input
      line, enter:

          .de SS
          .sp 3
          .ce
          ..

      and use it by typing:

          .SS
          Title Line
          (beginning of text)


           Macro names may be one or two characters.  In order to
      avoid  conflicts  with  names in -me, always use upper case
      letters as names.  The only names to avoid are TS, TH,  TE,
      EQ, and EN.

   5.7.  Annotations Inside Keeps

           Sometimes  you  may  want  to  put a footnote or index
      entry inside a keep.  For example, if you want to  maintain
      a "list of figures" you will want to do something like:

          .(z
          .(c
          text of figure
          .)c
          .ce
          Figure 5.
          .(x f
          Figure 5
          .)x
          .)z










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      which  you may hope will give you a figure with a label and
      an entry in the index  f  (presumably  a  list  of  figures
      index).   Unfortunately, the index entry is read and inter-
      preted when the keep is read, not when it  is  printed,  so
      the  page  number  in the index is likely to be wrong.  The
      solution is to use the magic string \!  at the beginning of
      all  the lines dealing with the index.  In other words, you
      should use:

          .(z
          .(c
          Text of figure
          .)c
          .ce
          Figure 5.
          \!.(x f
          \!Figure 5
          \!.)x
          .)z

      which will defer the processing of the index until the fig-
      ure is output.  This will guarantee that the page number in
      the index is correct.  The same comments  apply  to  blocks
      (with .(b and .)b) as well.

6.  TROFF and the Photosetter

        With  a  little care, you can prepare documents that will
   print nicely on either a regular terminal or when phototypeset
   using the TROFF formatting program.

   6.1.  Fonts

           A font is a style of type.  There are three fonts that
      are available simultaneously, Times  Roman,  Times  Italic,
      and  Times  Bold,  plus  the special math font.  The normal
      font is Roman.  Text which would  be  underlined  in  NROFF
      with the .ul request is set in italics in TROFF.

           There  are  ways  of  switching  between  fonts.   The
      requests .r, .i, and .b switch to Roman, italic,  and  bold
      fonts respectively.  You can set a single word in some font
      by typing (for example):

          .i word

      which will set word in italics but does not affect the sur-
      rounding  text.   In  NROFF, italic and bold text is under-
      lined.

           Notice that if you are setting more than one  word  in
      whatever  font,  you  must  surround  that word with double
      quote marks (`"') so that  it  will  appear  to  the  NROFF










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      processor  as  a  single  word.   The  quote marks will not
      appear in the formatted text.  If you do want a quote  mark
      to  appear,  you  should quote the entire string (even if a
      single word), and use two quote marks where you want one to
      appear.  For example, if you want to produce the text:

          "Master Control"

      in italics, you must type:

          .i """Master Control\|"""

      The  \|  produces  a very narrow space so that the "l" does
      not overlap the quote sign in TROFF, like this:

          "Master Control"


           There are also several "pseudo-fonts" available.   The
      input:

          .(b
          .u underlined
          .bi "bold italics"
          .bx "words in a box"
          .)b

      generates

          underlined-
          bold italics
          |words_in_a_box|

      In  NROFF  these  all just underline the text.  Notice that
      pseudo font requests set only the single parameter  in  the
      pseudo  font; ordinary font requests will begin setting all
      text in the special font if you do not provide a parameter.
      No  more  than one word should appear with these three font
      requests in the middle of lines.  This is  because  of  the
      way  TROFF  justifies  text.   For  example, if you were to
      issue the requests:

          .bi "some bold italics"
          and
          .bx "words in a box"

      in the middle of a line TROFF would produce some bold ital-
      ics  and |words_in_a_box|, which would look really lousy in
      TROFF.

           The second parameter of all font requests  is  set  in
      the original font.  For example, the font request:











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          .b bold face

      generates  "bold" in bold font, but sets "face" in the font
      of the surrounding text, resulting in:

          boldface.

      To set the two words bold and face both in bold face, type:

          .b "bold face"


           You  can  mix  fonts  in  a  word by using the special
      sequence \c at the end of a line to indicate "continue text
      processing";  this allows input lines to be joined together
      without a space between them.  For example, the input:

          .u under \c
          .i italics

      generates underitalics, but if we had typed:

          .u under
          .i italics

      the result would have been under-italics as two words.

   6.2.  Point Sizes

           The phototypesetter supports different sizes of  type,
      measured  in  points.   The default point size is 10 points
      for most text, 8  points  for  footnotes.   To  change  the
      pointsize, type:

          .sz +N

      where N is the size wanted in points.  The vertical spacing
      (distance between the bottom of most letters (the baseline)
      between  adjacent  lines)  is set to be proportional to the
      type size.

           These pointsize changes are temporary!!!  For example,
      to reset the pointsize of basic text to twelve point, use:

          .nr pp 12
          .nr sp 12
          .nr tp 12

      to reset the default pointsize of paragraphs, section head-
      ers, and titles respectively.  If you only want to set  the
      names of sections in a larger pointsize, use:

          .nr sp 11










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      alone -- this sets section titles (e.g., Point Sizes above)
      in a larger font than the default.

           A single word or phrase can be set in a smaller point-
      size than the surrounding text using the .sm request.  This
      is especially convenient for words that are  all  capitals,
      due  to  the  optical  illusion  that  makes them look even
      larger than they actually are.  For example:

          .sm UNIX

      prints as UNIX rather than UNIX.

           Warning: changing point sizes on  the  phototypesetter
      is  a  slow mechanical operation.  On laser printers it may
      require loading new fonts.  Size changes should be  consid-
      ered carefully.

   6.3.  Quotes

           It  is  conventional  when using the typesetter to use
      pairs of grave and acute accents to generate double quotes,
      rather  than  the  double  quote  character (`"').  This is
      because it looks better to use grave and acute accents; for
      example, compare "quote" to ``quote''.

           In  order  to make quotes compatible between the type-
      setter and terminals, you may use the sequences  \*(lq  and
      \*(rq  to  stand for the left and right quote respectively.
      These both appear as " on most terminals, but  are  typeset
      as `` and '' respectively.  For example, use:

          \*(lqSome things aren't true
          even if they did happen.\*(rq

      to generate the result:

          "Some things aren't true even if they did happen."

      As a shorthand, the special font request:

          .q "quoted text"

      will generate "quoted text".  Notice that you must surround
      the material to be quoted with double quote marks if it  is
      more than one word.

















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Acknowledgments

     I  would like to thank Bob Epstein, Bill Joy, and Larry Rowe
for having the courage to use the -me macros to produce non-triv-
ial  papers  during  the  development  stages; Ricki Blau, Pamela
Humphrey, and Jim Joyce for their  help  with  the  documentation
phase;  peter  kessler  for numerous complaints years after I was
"done" with this project, most accompanied by fixes (hence  forc-
ing me to fix several small bugs); and the plethora of people who
have contributed ideas and have given support for the project.






This document was NROFF'ed on December 23, 2017  and  applies  to
version 2.29 of the -me macros.









































